People, People That Fourth Dimension The National Safety Means Invented Bitcoin

I but saw some of the comments inward the Alphaville post to which nosotros linked this morning: "The FT's Izabella Kaminska Explores the Numéraire too Why It Matters" mentions the fairly widely known fact that the NSA is the dwelling of the SHA-2 (Secure Hash Algorithm 2) too includes the link.

There is some other link that I intend is fifty-fifty to a greater extent than interesting, this 1 hosted at:

http://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/classes/6.805/articles/money/nsamint/nsamint.htm

The link goes to:

Anonymous: Fried, Frank got NSA's permission to brand this study available. They get got offered to brand copies available yesteryear contacting them at <21stcen ffhsj.com=""> or (202) 639-7200. See: http://www.ffhsj.com/bancmail/21starch/961017.htm

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Received Oct 31, 1996

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With the Compliments of Thomas P. Vartanian
Fried, Frank, Harris, Schriver & Jacobson
1001 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20004-2505
Telephone: (202) 639-7200

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HOW TO MAKE Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 MINT: THE CRYPTOGRAPHY OF ANONYMOUS ELECTRONIC CASH

Laurie Law, Susan Sabett, Jerry Solinas
National Security Agency Office of Information Security Research too Technology
Cryptology Division
eighteen June 1996

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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. WHAT IS ELECTRONIC CASH?
1.1 Electronic Payment
1.2 Security of Electronic Payments
1.3 Electronic Cash
1.4 Multiple Spending
2. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 CRYPTOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION
2.1 Public-Key Cryptographic Tools
2.2 Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Simplified Electronic Cash Protocol
2.3 Untraceable Electronic Payments
2.4 Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Basic Electronic Cash Protocol
3. PROPOSED OFF-LINE IMPLEMENTATIONS
3.1 Including Identifying Information
3.2 Authentication too Signature Techniques
3.3 Summary of Proposed Implementations
4. OPTIONAL FEATURES OF OFF-LINE CASH
4. 1 Transferability
4.2 Divisibility
5. SECURITY ISSUES
5.1 Multiple Spending Prevention
5.2 Wallet Observers
5.3 Security Failures
5.4 Restoring Traceability
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

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INTRODUCTION

With the onset of the Information Age, our state is becoming increasingly subject upon network communications. Computer-based technology is significantly impacting our mightiness to access, store, too distribute information. Among the most of import uses of this technology is electronic commerce: performing fiscal transactions via electronic data exchanged over telecommunication lines. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 cardinal requirement for electronic commerce is the evolution of secure too efficient electronic payment systems. The demand for safety is highlighted yesteryear the ascension of the Internet, which promises to live a leading medium for hereafter electronic commerce.

Electronic payment systems come upward inward many forms including digital checks, debit cards, credit cards, too stored value cards. The commons safety features for such systems are privacy (protection from eavesdropping), authenticity (provides user identification too message integrity), too nonrepudiation (prevention of afterwards denying having performed a transaction) .

The type of electronic payment organization focused on inward this newspaper is electronic cash. As the call implies, electronic cash is an displace to build an electronic payment organization modelled after our newspaper cash system. Paper cash has such features every bit being: portable (easily carried), recognizable (as legal tender) thus readily acceptable, transferable (without involvement of the fiscal network), untraceable (no tape of where coin is spent), anonymous (no tape of who spent the money) too has the mightiness to brand "change." The designers of electronic cash focused on preserving the features of untraceability too anonymity. Thus, electronic cash is defined to live an electronic payment organization that provides, inward add-on to the to a higher house safety features, the properties of user anonymity too payment untraceability..

In general, electronic cash schemes accomplish these safety goals via digital signatures. They tin live considered the digital analog to a handwritten signature. Digital signatures are based on public cardinal cryptography. In such a cryptosystem, each user has a surreptitious cardinal too a world key. The surreptitious cardinal is used to practice a digital signature too Earth cardinal is needed to verify the digital signature. To enjoin who has signed the data (also called the message), 1 must live sure enough 1 knows who owns a given world key. This is the work of cardinal management, too its solution requires some sort of authentication infrastructure. In addition, the organization must get got adequate network too physical safety to safeguard the secrecy of the surreptitious keys.

This study has surveyed the academic literature for cryptographic techniques for implementing secure electronic cash systems. Several innovative payment schemes providing user anonymity too payment untraceability get got been found. Although no detail payment organization has been thoroughly analyzed, the cryptography itself appears to live audio too to deliver the promised anonymity.
These schemes are far less satisfactory, however, from a police pull enforcement indicate of view. In particular, the dangers of coin laundering too counterfeiting are potentially far to a greater extent than serious than amongst newspaper cash. These problems be inward whatever electronic payment system, but they are made much worse yesteryear the presence of anonymity. Indeed, the widespread exercise of electronic cash would increase the vulnerability of the national fiscal organization to Information Warfare attacks. We hash out measures to grapple these risks; these steps, however, would get got the effect of limiting the users' anonymity.

This study is organized inward the next manner. Chapter 1 defines the basic concepts surrounding electronic payment systems too electronic cash. Chapter 2 provides the reader amongst a high degree cryptographic description of electronic cash protocols inward damage of basic authentication mechanisms. Chapter iii technically describes specific implementations that get got been proposed inward the academic literature. In Chapter 4, the optional features of transferability too divisibility for off-line electronic cash are presented. Finally, inward Chapter five the safety issues associated amongst electronic cash are discussed.

The authors of this newspaper want to admit the next people for their contribution to this enquiry displace through numerous discussions too review of this paper: Kevin Igoe, John Petro, Steve Neal, too Mel Currie.

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1. WHAT IS ELECTRONIC CASH?

We start yesteryear carefully defining "electronic cash." This term is frequently applied to whatever electronic payment scheme that superficially resembles cash to the user. In fact, however, electronic cash is a specific sort of electronic payment scheme, defined yesteryear sure enough cryptographic properties. We similar a shot focus on these properties....

...MUCH, MUCH MORE

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 pair other posts that turned upward spell I was looking for the above:

"Is an Editable Blockchain the Future of Finance?"

So the lady asked, "CIA Admits to Snooping On Noam Chomsky (and Richard Dawkins swings by)
The CIA couldn't brand heads or tails of what Chomsky was talking about....
From Foreign Policy:

For years, the Central Intelligence Agency denied it had a surreptitious file on MIT professor too famed dissident Noam Chomsky. But a novel authorities disclosure obtained yesteryear The Cable reveals for the outset fourth dimension that the means did inward fact get together records on the anti-war iconoclast during his heyday inward the 1970s.

The disclosure besides reveals that Chomsky's entire CIA file was scrubbed from Langley's archives, raising questions every bit to when the file was destroyed too nether what authority.

The breakthrough inward the search for Chomsky's CIA file comes inward the shape of a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) asking to the Federal Bureau of Investigation. For years, FOIA requests to the CIA garnered the Chomskybot replied:

"It may be, then, that the descriptive mightiness of the base of operations element is non quite equivalent to the extended c-command discussed inward connecter amongst (34). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 effect of the approach but outlined is that a descriptively adequate grammer is unspecified amongst abide by to a full general convention regarding the forms of the grammar. Nevertheless, the theory of syntactic features developed before is rather dissimilar from a descriptive fact. In the intelligence of resumptive pronouns next (81), the systematic exercise of complex symbols is, apparently, determined yesteryear the organization of base of operations rules exclusive of the lexicon. So far, the natural full general regulation that volition subsume this illustration is to live regarded every bit the ultimate measure that determines the accuracy of whatever proposed grammar...."

For students, the Chomskybot tin give you lot the same leg upward inward linguistics that postmodern literature aficionados (and Richard Dawkins!*) get got enjoyed via the Postmodernism Generator:

Derridaist reading too Lyotardist narrative 
Stefan N. H. Geoffrey 
Department of Politics, Oxford University

1. Textual appropriation too subcultural desublimation
If 1 examines Derridaist reading, 1 is faced amongst a choice: either get got Lyotardist narrative or conclude that sexual identity, ironically, has objective value. If Derridaist reading holds, nosotros get got to select betwixt subcultural desublimation too the textual image of context.

It could live said that the principal theme of the industrial plant of Joyce is the purpose of the reader every bit participant. Lacan uses the term ‘Lyotardist narrative’ to announce the deviation betwixt guild too narrativity.  

However, inward Dubliners, Joyce deconstructs subcultural desublimation; inward Ulysses, however, he denies Derridaist reading. Several theories concerning the purpose of the author every bit reader may live discovered....MUCH MORE